Also, it has been demonstrated that loudness is related to the perceived level of arousal and valence in music ( Schubert, 2004 Dean et al., 2011 Olsen et al., 2015).
Similarly, music composed in a major mode is typically associated with a high level of valence and with positive emotions like joy and peace. For example, most of the time, a fast tempo is associated with a high level of arousal, whereas a slow tempo is associated with a low level of arousal.
Both music-resulting emotions and dimensions have been convincingly demonstrated to be associated with different musical parameters (for a review, see Juslin and Laukka, 2004). As recommended by Eerola and Vuoskoski (2011), these musical emotions are often studied into valence (i.e., positive and negative emotions) and arousal (i.e., stimulating and relaxing) dimensions ( Vieillard et al., 2008), which are taken from Russell’s model ( Russell, 1980). Music listening induces strong and consistent emotions in the listener ( Blood and Zatorre, 2001 Hunter and Schellenberg, 2010 Chanda and Levitin, 2013). In conclusion, relaxing music seems to interfere with visuo-spatial attentional control compared to stimulating music and silence, regardless of age. This effect was the same across both age groups. Interestingly, this difference was significantly greater under the relaxing music condition compared to other auditory conditions. As expected, reaction times were slower for the incongruent compared to congruent trials. Participants had to indicate as fast and as accurately as possible the direction of a central arrow, which was flanked by congruent or incongruent arrows. Older and young adults performed a visuo-spatial flanker task during three auditory conditions: stimulating music, relaxing music, and silence. Therefore, the aims of this study were (1) to determine if the influence of background music, and more specifically its arousal level, might improve attentional control in older adults and (2) whether this effect is similar across older and young adults. Consequently, stimulating and pleasant music might enhance attentional control. According to the Arousal-Mood Theory, the beneficial influence of background music on cognitive performance would be related to its ability to increase the arousal level of the listeners and to improve their mood. Previous studies have demonstrated that background music can enhance some executive functions in both young and older adults. Healthy aging may be accompanied by cognitive decline that includes diminished attentional control, an executive function that allows us to focus our attention while inhibiting distractors. 3Laboratory of Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (CANEURO), Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.2Laboratory of Behavioral Neurology and Imaging of Cognition (LabNIC) and Swiss Center for Affective Sciences (CISA), Department of Neuroscience, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.1International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Center for Research on Brain, Language and Music (CRBLM) and Laboratory for Music, Emotions and Cognition Research (MUSEC), Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada.Fernandez 2,3, Catherine Houde-Archambault 1 and Nathalie Gosselin 1 *
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